New Publication on Psalms as Resistance Poetry

I'm pleased to note that my article that examines the first century BCE Jewish text Psalms of Solomon in light of the features of resistance poetry has just been published in the Journal of Ancient Judaism 9 (2018): 366–385. Here is a link to the article: Psalms of Solomon as Resistance Poetry. The abstract is below:

Two trends in recent scholarship provide a new set of lenses that enable contemporary readers to appreciate more fully the contents and genre of Pss Sol. On the one hand, scholars such as Richard Horsley, Anathea Portier-Young, and Adela Yarbro Collins have now explored the ways in which early Jewish writers engaged in a kind of compositional resistance as they grappled with their traditions in light of the realities of oppressive empires. These approaches enable us to consider the extent to which Pss Sol also may embody a kind of resistant counterdiscourse for the community in which it was edited and preserved. On the other hand, scholars within biblical studies (e.g., Hugh Page's Israel's Poetry of Resistance) and beyond have examined the dynamics of the poetry of resistance. Such poetry has existed in many times, places, and cultures, giving a voice to the oppressed, protecting the memory of victims, and creating a compelling vision of a possible future in which the oppression is overcome. In this article the poetry of Guatemalan poet Julia Esquivel is interwoven with Pss. Sol. to illustrate these dynamics and to illuminate the kinds of concerns that scholars like Barbara Harlow and Carolyn Forché have highlighted within the poetry of witness. Since Pss Sol has yet to be explored through these dual lenses of resistance and resistance poetry, this article examines these early Jewish psalms in light of these scholarly trends. I argue that Pss Sol can be understood as a kind of resistance poetry that enabled a community of Jews in the first century BCE to resist the dominant discourse of both the Roman Empire and its client king, Herod the Great. The themes of history, identity, and possibility that pervade resistance poetry in other times and places are central features of Pss Sol.

Some of this research is reflected now in how I read the early Christian hymns that are embedded in the New Testament. Several of these hymns resonate strongly with the kind of "spirituality of resistance" that the Psalms of Solomon demonstrate, suggesting to me that the earliest Christian hymns were not strictly religious but also reflected other concerns of the early followers of Jesus in their Roman imperial context.

Connecting the Sacredness of Creation with Liberal Arts and Social Justice

Carlow University where I teach identifies five cores values that underlie all that we do: mercy, service, hospitality, discovery, and sacredness of creation. This academic year the value of sacredness of creation is being called out for special attention. Since I’ve been thinking about this value and its implications for what we do in the College of Learning and Innovation, I wanted to capture some of these ideas in a short post.

In Carlow’s values statement the value of sacredness of creation is described in this way:

This value leads us to a respect for each person and for all of creation. In gratitude for the beauty and variety of our world and its inhabitants, we commit to a culture of sustainability and to the preservation of a world where all are reverenced and all may thrive.

Since Carlow is a Catholic, Mercy institution, this value can be seen as a clear theme drawn from the Catholic Intellectual Tradition and underlying Catholic Social Teaching. As such, it is really an outgrowth of the biblical understanding that this world is God’s world. Psalm 24 begins with this declaration: “The earth is the LORD's and all that is in it, the world, and those who live in it.” Careful reflection on this annunciation alone would allow us to make a strong claim for the value of all that is in this world, and of all who live in it. Rooted in the Hebrew Bible and affirmed in the New Testament, the sacredness of all creation is arguably a central affirmation of both Jewish and Christian faith traditions.

As a starting point, this value is a clear call to living thoughtfully upon the earth in ways that respect and preserve the beautiful world that we live in. As important as that is, especially today, it also seems to me the sacredness of creations has implications far beyond environmental responsibility.

I see this value making a claim upon our work in the College of Learning and Innovation in two important ways. First, on the largest possible scale, because everything that exists does so by God’s creative will, everything in this world is inherently valuable. This orientation to seeing the world as sacred undergirds the importance of a liberal arts education. Every field of academic study has value for its own sake, if we embrace the value of the sacredness of creation. Fr. Michael Himes of Boston College uses a wonderful expression to speak about what he calls the sacramental principle. He says, “To see things as they are is to see them ‘engraced.’ Everything that is, exists by being held in love by ‘engracement.’” If the earth is the Lord’s, then everything is “engraced”—what is needed is for us to be able to perceive this. This leads to a second implication.

Second, on a more personal scale, the sacredness of creation reflects back on the value, worth, and dignity of every person. This value certainly necessitates that we treat all people with the dignity they deserve. But this value places an additional claim on us: if we hold this value then we are called to respond to situations in which the dignity of humans is violated. Valuing the sacredness of creation thus places an obligation upon us to address social injustices. Catherine McAuley, foundress of the Sisters of Mercy, spent many years of her life living with a Quaker family where she came to embrace the Quaker teaching that “there is that of God in every person.” That belief motivated her life of service and continues to animate the Sisters of Mercy to this day. And thus, this value of the sacredness of creation is deeply rooted in our university’s history.

In short, in this one value is inscribed not only the importance of living with an eye toward the preservation of our environment, but a theological foundation for the study of the liberal arts and for working for the well-being of all people.

Peace, Light, and Joy in Advent

Peace. Light. Joy. The mercy of God.

These are ideas that we associate with the Advent season. Why is it that we focus on these particular ideas when we ponder the birth of Jesus? Partly, it is because that is what Christians have been doing since the earliest Christian writings.

Luke’s Gospel gives us a lot of our information about the birth of Jesus. It also includes four songs sung by different individuals around the time of his birth. These songs collectively point us to ponder these meaningful words: peace, light, and joy. And to see these all as part of the limitless mercy of God.

For our reflection this morning, I’ll just read a few excerpts from each of the four songs.

The angels announced PEACE:

“Glory to God in the highest heaven,

    and on earth peace among those whom he favors!” (Luke 2:14)

Simeon experienced PEACE and saw the LIGHT:

“Master, now you are dismissing your servant in peace,

    according to your word;

for my eyes have seen your salvation,

     which you have prepared in the presence of all peoples,

a light for revelation to the Gentiles

    and for glory to your people Israel.” (Luke 2:29-32)

Mary knew JOY in response to God’s MERCY:

“My soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior” (Luke 1:46-47)

“His mercy is for those who fear him from generation to generation” (Luke 1:50)

“He has . . . lifted up the lowly;
he has filled the hungry with good things, . . .
He has helped his servant Israel, in remembrance of his mercy.” (Luke 1:52-54)

Zechariah put this all together:

“By the tender mercy of our God,
    the dawn from on high will break upon us,
to give light to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death,
    to guide our feet into the way of peace.” (Luke 2:78-79)

God of Mercy: We ask today for the joy exhibited by Mary, the peace declared by the angels, the light foretold by Zechariah, all of which point us to the tender mercy of our God. Amen.

A Fourth Century Advent Hymn

On this day St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan in the fourth century, is remembered. One of thirty-six “Doctors of the Church,” among his significant contributions to the Christian faith (including being the teacher of St. Augustine) is a rich collection of hymns, some of which continue to be sung to this day. A few years ago I shared a Christmas hymn of Ambrose. Today I would like to share an Advent hymn, “O Splendor of God's glory bright.”

Since I posted on hymns in the Gospel of Luke last week, it is interesting to notice the way that some themes of the Lukan hymns are taken up in Ambrose’s hymn. Ambrose’s hymn has its primary focus on the coming of Jesus as bringing light and illumination to humanity. Jesus is “Light of light,” “true Day,” and “very Sun of heaven’s love.” And in the final stanza he ends with the notion of a new dawn arising, with Jesus as “our perfect Morn.” These ideas echo the song of Simeon with his emphasis on the coming of Jesus as “a light for revelation” (Luke 2:32). Zechariah as well strikes these notes: “By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us, to give light to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death” (Luke 1:78,79). One striking difference from Luke’s hymns, and from the hymns embedded in the New Testament, is the very personal dimension that can be seen in stanzas 2, 3, 4, and 5. These verses shift the focus to the congregation itself in asking for divine assistance to live lives that are reflective of those who are in the light and no longer in darkness. This more personal dimension is a trend that can be seen in the hymnody that developed in the second century and beyond. To me, such development in successive generations illustrates one way that Christians of later eras built on the earlier traditions and adapted them to the needs of their day.

1 O Splendor of God's glory bright,
from Light eternal bringing light,
O Light of light, light's living Spring,
true Day, all days illumining. 

2 Come, very Sun of heaven's love,
in lasting radiance from above,
and pour the Holy Spirit's ray
on all we think or do today. 

3 And now to Thee our pray'r ascend,
O Father, glorious without end;
we plead with sovereign grace for pow'r
to conquer in temptation's hour. 

4 Confirm our will to do the right,
and keep our hearts from envy's blight;
let faith her eager fires renew,
and hate the false, and love the true. 

5 O joyful be the passing day
with thoughts as pure as morning's ray,
with faith like noontide shining bright
our souls unshadowed by the night. 

6 Dawn's glory gilds the earth and skies,
let Him, our perfect Morn, arise,
the Word in God the Father one,
the Father imaged in the Son.

Source: Hymnary.org

While looking for this hymn, I was pleased to discover a contemporary setting of this hymn by Zac Hicks. I found it to be a very meditative piece that reflects the solemnity of the words but also the celebratory joy of being invited to live in the light.

Advent and the Hymns of Luke’s Gospel

The four songs embedded within the first two chapters of the Gospel of Luke are a rich resource for reflecting on the advent of Jesus. Individually, they are meaningful and moving prayers and exclamations of praise in response to the good news about the arrival of the long-awaited messiah. Collectively, they reinforce and complement one another creating a tapestry of praise in celebration of the birth of the savior. The season of Advent is a perfect time to reflect on these beautiful passages.

For those unfamiliar with these passages, they are commonly referred to by their Latin names: the Magnificat (1:46–55) is the song of Mary; the Benedictus (1:68–79) is the song of Zechariah; the Gloria in excelsis (2:14) is the song of the angels; and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29–32) is the song of Simeon. Reading them as the responses of praise to the announcement and arrival of the promised savior is particularly instructive.

Themes of these songs include such things as the mercy of God, which is mentioned twice in the Magnificat and twice in the Benedictus; though the term is not explicitly used in the other two songs, they clearly reflect responses to God’s favor. The notion of reversals where the proud are brought low and the humble are raised up, or those in darkness are enlightened, are prominent in the Magnificat and Benedictus. The fulfillment of God’s promises to his people to deliver them is a theme of the Magnificat, Benedictus, and Nunc Dimittis. The arrival of light, salvation, forgiveness, and guidance into the way of peace are major themes of the Benedictus. The glorifying of God and the announcement of peace and God’s favor are themes of the Gloria in excelsis. Peace, light, salvation, and glory are themes of the Nunc Dimittis, along with the notion of the Gentiles as recipients of God’s enlightening and saving work through the savior. Taken together there is a very interesting move from the individual blessing of Mary, to the fulfillment of God’s promises of deliverance to God’s people, to the praise of the angels, to the enlightening work of the savior extending to all of humanity. In this way the progression of thematic praise to God in Luke’s birth narrative aligns with the overall thrust of Luke’s two-part masterpiece of Gospel and Acts. Both Luke’s Gospel and Acts end with echoes of this notion of the inclusion of the Gentiles in the people of God (Luke 24:47; Acts 28:28).

It is instructive to compare the contents and emphases of these four songs with the christological hymns embedded within other writings of the New Testament (e.g., Phil 2:5-11; Col 1:15-20). If we were to do so, we might immediately be struck by a few significant differences. Luke’s songs do not have a primary focus on Jesus, as much as the saving work of God, and they do not mention some important themes of the other NT hymns. Missing from Luke’s hymns are references to such concepts as the preexistence of Jesus, the incarnation of Jesus, the death of Jesus, the resurrection of Jesus, and the ascension of Jesus. The Magnificat does not even mention Jesus! While this sounds like a lot of significant christological content that is absent from these songs, the context of these songs is important to consider. These are included at the beginning of Luke’s narrative, a narrative which itself will unfold the significance of Jesus, detailing the death on the cross and the resurrection and ascension. For the author of the gospel, it was not necessary to spell out all of these specific christological ideas in each song or even in the opening chapters. Instead, the songs of the infancy narrative set the stage for what will follow. Here is how I’ve explained it: “Rather than recount the salient contents of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ, these four psalms portray the responses of a range of devout characters to the news that the time of redemption has begun.” (New Testament Christological Hymns, 207)

In this regard I find the work of Kindalee De Long at Pepperdine University especially instructive. She explains how the narrative of Luke unfolds in such a way that these songs demonstrate the responses of joy that would be expected in the arrival of the promised new age of divine deliverance. This idea can be found throughout the prophetic writings including Joel 2:26-27, Zephaniah 3:14-15, Zechariah 9:9-10, and Isaiah 66:7-11. So it is not just in the words of the songs that the meaning is found, but in the actual act of joyous singing in response to the news of the arrival of the savior.

Also, in spite of the differences from the other early hymns, there are significant shared themes:

“In common with the christological hymns, however, is an emphasis on the birth of Christ as signaling the initiation of the new age in which God fulfills the expectations of the prophets. Specific touch points with the early Christian hymns are the idea that Christ brings about peace, that his advent enlightens humanity, and that Gentiles and Jews alike are included as beneficiaries of God’s actions in Christ. One final point of connection is the idea that God’s redemptive activities in and through Christ result in glory to God.” (New Testament Christological Hymns, 207-208)

All of those elements of Luke's hymns are the central themes of the christological hymns found throughout the New Testament.

For Luke as an author it seems that he not only “tells” the reader about the messiah but also “shows” the reader that the birth of Jesus inaugurates a new age. And for Luke, the scripturesque language of the hymns does not simply “tell” but also “shows” that this new work of God is the work that the Jewish scriptures and prophets had foretold. Like the other hymns in the New Testament, these passages show a rich and deep engagement with the Jewish Scriptures. Apart from a careful reading of the scriptural grounding of these hymns in their early Jewish context, it is difficult to appreciate the full meaning of these passages.

Not only Luke the author but the characters in the narrative themselves invite us to understand that this was good news for “all the people.” And as Zechariah exclaimed it was “by the tender mercy of our God” that the dawn from on high was breaking upon them. Further, these characters model an appropriate response to the divine visitation: joyous praise to God.

In our world that is still longing for peace, the praises of Mary, Zechariah, the angels, and Simeon, are as timely as they were in the first-century context. And they can still enlighten us today as we contemplate with them the mystery of God’s mercy revealed in the advent of Jesus.

Reflecting on Anti-Judaism in 2018

I was invited by the English and Theatre Department in my college to give a book talk this past week. As I was preparing the talk I was focusing on the great extent to which the New Testament christological hymns reflect a deep engagement with Jewish traditions, especially the Wisdom tradition and the prophetic promises of renewal of God’s people in the new age. I began to realize that I could not speak about the Jewish dimensions of these early hymns without also speaking to the rise of anti-Semitism that has been forcibly brought into our consciousness as a nation, and especially here in Pittsburgh. Below are some of the ways I have reflected on this reality and some of what I included in my talk this week:

In my writing and speaking to date, I generally gloss over the complicated relationship that developed between Christians and Jews in the first century and beyond. I had kind of assumed that, as people of good will in the 21^st century, “we” were beyond anti-Semitism and one did not need to write or speak directly against. Fair-minded and careful reading of ancient Jewish and early Christian writings demonstrates a sensitivity and respect that we all, whether scholars or lay people, should bring to the study of religious texts. But the horrific shooting at the Tree of Life Synagogue, less than 3 miles from this location, means that there is still work to do to promote a responsible understanding of the relationship of Christianity and Judaism in antiquity. On top of that, the FBI released a report yesterday detailing a 37% increase in hate crimes against Jews over the last 3 years; hate crimes against Jews were already the highest proportion of religious hate crimes. 

All of this is very disturbing, and in our climate of increasing hate and animosity, people of faith must remind ourselves of the sacredness of all creation—meaning that every person, regardless of background, race, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity—everyone we encounter is, according to Jesus, our neighbor, our brother, our sister, part of our human family. Those of us who believe that need to affirm it; and beyond affirming it, we now must also speak up where we can about these issues. 

Within our view of the human family as people created by God there is no room for racism or anti-Semitism. However, it is a sad fact that in history Christian biblical interpretation has at times played a part in devaluing Judaism. Anti-Judaism, as it is called, is unfortunately common in biblical interpretation, when Christians create a caricature of early Jewish belief and practice, and use that as a negative foil against which to present Jesus as bringing something new and better. It is often unintentional, but even something as simple as characterizing the Christian Old Testament (supposedly representing Judaism) as promoting law, wrath, and judgment—while claiming that the New Testament is a message of love, grace, and forgiveness—is in reality an expression of anti-Judaism. There are three serious problems about such portrayals of early Judaism. First, such over-simplifications are just flat out wrong: the Jewish Scriptures, rightly understood, are full of mercy, forgiveness, and grace; as is Judaism. Christians did not invent those concepts; they are Jewish through and through, as was Jesus. Second, those erroneous views of early Judaism have been used throughout history to justify abuse and mistreatment of Jews. Third, such simplistic views actually implicitly undermine the very teaching of the Scriptures which Christians claim to promote. We must stand against anti-Judaism and caricatures of people of faiths other than our own. 

Yes, we must also acknowledge that Christianity and Judaism are two very different religious traditions. But they share a great deal in common. At the very least, when reading the New Testament, Christians are obligated to be careful to understand the nature of the conflicts within first-century Judaism. It was not simply Jesus the loving Christian against the legalistic, mean-spirited Jews. It is rather Jesus the Jewish teacher engaging with his fellow Jews, wrestling with how to understand the promises of God for their day, and how best to live within the new age that God was initiating. 

The New Testament christological hymns [the subject of my book talk] show us that the earliest followers of Jesus saw Jesus as fully in line with the Jewish expectations that God would fulfill the ancient promises and redeem humanity. God was fulfilling God’s promises, and doing so through Jesus. Whether one accepts that Jesus was God’s agent in fulfilling these promises is, of course, the crux of the matter for Christian belief. But the early hymns show us that Jews and Christians alike can acknowledge the shared vision of renewed humanity that derives from the first century Jewish context and the shared biblical tradition. 

Further, like other Jewish resistance poetry, the New Testament hymns take aim not at Jewish belief. Instead, they take aim at the Roman emperor who had been elevated to divine status that belonged only to the one true God.

With those acknowledgements and cautions in view, I then concluded my talk pointing out the ways in which the New Testament christological hymns engage deeply with Jewish ideas, while also countering Roman imperial claims.

There are many good resources that address issues of anti-Judaism in Christian biblical interpretation, and I hope to engage further with those in future posts. Amy-Jill Levine’s work is a great starting point, both her books and her more popular writing. For now, I wanted to at least share these thoughts on the blog as I continue to reflect on the responses we are obligated to make to these disturbing rise of hate in our days.

The Unique Contributions of Luke's Gospel

Today is the feast day of St. Luke and thus a fitting day to recognize some of the remarkable contributions of Luke’s Gospel to our understanding of Jesus and his message.

First, as is well known, the Gospel of Luke has a clear emphasis on the good news being for the poor, the sick, and those on the margins of society: the gospel is “good news” for all people, not just those who outwardly appear to be favored by God. (See Luke 4:16-21)

Second, Luke alone includes some of the best known parables of Jesus. Without Luke we would not know of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) or the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32). The parable of the Good Samaritan is itself a powerful illustration of mercy and compassion for those in need, and a reminder that all people are our neighbors. It thus ties in directly with the first point above about Luke’s emphasis on the good news being for all people.

Third, Luke preserves some very early songs from the first century. These are particularly to be found in the birth narrative. In the first two chapters of the Gospel of Luke, four different characters respond to news of God’s salvation with joyful song that sounds very much like the psalmody of the Jewish Scriptures and the words of the prophets. Like characters in biblical narratives and other Jewish texts, they respond to good news with a psalm of praise. These four psalms are commonly referred to by their Latin names. Mary’s song is the Magnificat (1:46–55), Zechariah’s is the Benedictus (1:68–79), the angels’ song of praise is the Gloria in excelsis (2:14), and Simeon’s is the Nunc Dimittis (2:29–32). By quoting these four songs or parts of songs, Luke has preserved for us a rich treasure and gives us a glimpse into some of the earliest ways in which the advent of Jesus was celebrated through song and poetry in the early church.

For our vision of Jesus and the events and significance of his life, we owe much to Luke and his careful historical and literary work. We also can be thankful today that he had an ear for songs and hymns, and that he chose to include them in his Gospel for the benefit of all of his readers.

For more on Luke, see this reflection from the FaithND website.

For more specifically on the hymns in Luke's Gospel, see chapter six of my latest book.